Explanation Of The Digestive System And Associated Diseases Biology Essay

Explanation Of The Digestive System And Associated Diseases Biology Essay Digestion is the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food, a process required for survival. Without the capability to break food down into molecules small enough to enter the blood stream, an organisms energy levels would not support life. In humans and animals, blood cells must maintain a constant supply of energy for growth, repair, and reproduction. This energy is derived through ingested food that is broken down to a usable form through digestion. The digestive system is a contributor to the internal stability maintained for health and overall survival (Ch. 3: Human Organization, n.d). There are five stages of digestion that the human body goes through. Movement is the first stage; it is necessary to, first, propel food through the digestive organs so the following stages can occur. Stage two is glandular secretions that are released as a response to specific stimuli. These digestive juices assist in the chemical break down of food. In stage three, digestion breaks down food to a small enough form that will enable the molecular components to cross plasma membranes in cells, which allows stage four to take coarse. In stage four, absorption occurs as the molecules are passed into the bodies interior, or passed throughout the body if the molecules are unnecessary for the health of the organism. Finally, stage five, the process of the passing of the unneeded molecules discovered in stage four. The body must eliminate waste and undigested food in this final stage. Each stage involves appointed organs to do specific jobs along the process of digestion (Audersirk, Audersi rk, & Byers, 2008). HOMEOSTASIS Picture how a well oiled machine works, or a fine tuned orchestra; each instrumentalist working as an individual to produce one intricate melody. The individual string players produce one sound within the melody, the percussion produce another contributing sound, the winds, another, and so on. The equilibrium of such a scenario is very similar to how the human body performs homeostasis. Each different organ system maintains stability within the human body by contributing its own specific function through individual organs. These functions involve coordinated responses to abnormal stimuli or situations, and then work together to alleviate the abnormality (Audersirk, et al., 2008). There are five main functions that are involved in human homeostasis. The protective skin; featuring hair, nails, sweat and oil glands is known as the integumentary system. Support and movement of the body is provided by the muscular and skeletal systems. Survival, integration and control of the human body are supported by the nervous system, which senses stimuli and allows the body to control itself through thought; musculoskeletal system, where the muscle and bone functions combine to produce reflexes and strength, glandular system, producing chemicals for cellular stability; and endocrine system, releasing hormones. Continuance of the species relies on the reproductive organ systems, gametes such as sperm and eggs, and endocrine systems to release hormones. The overall maintenance of the body relies on several organ systems that are cardiovascular, respiratory, lymphatic, and urinary and last, but certainly not least, the digestive system (Ch. 3: Human Organization, n.d). The digestive system keeps the conditions of the body normal, contributing to the tissue fluids that bathe cells with needed nutrients. Blood and tissue need to maintain a constant composition for cells to function and support the organism life. Although the endocrine and nervous system act as the composers of the hypothetical symphony that is homeostasis by coordinating organ system activities, the digestive system is a key member. This organ system is important because it helps maintain levels of energy in the cells through the absorption of nutrients, fats and glucose. Those nutrients, fats and glucose provide support for other systems and their cells as well as the overall health of the being. The digestive system is a contributor to the dynamic equilibrium that homeostasis is (Ch. 3: Human Organization, n.d.). HOW THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM INTERACT WITH OTHER ORGAN SYSTEMS? The digestive system works in parallel with the kidneys and urinary (excretory system). While the digestive system collects and removes solids not digested, the excretory system filters compounds from the blood stream and collects them in urine. These systems work together to control the amount of water in your body. (Dowshen M.D., 2007) The circulatory system interacts with the digestive system to distribute the absorbed vitamins and nutrients through the body. To control the speed of digestion, the circulatory system carries chemical signals from the endocrine system (Dowshen M.D., 2007). The Endocrine system directs all the systems in the body to complete their intended functions. One way in which this occurs is through the release of hormones. Three major hormones, Gastrin, Secretin, and Cholecystokinin, control the digestion process. Produced and released through the mucosa of the small intestine, they travel through the heart, and arteries back to the digestive system where they stimulate digestive juices and organ movement. Other hormones in the digestive system that regulate the appetite are Ghrelin and Peptide YY. They work on the brain to help regulate the intake of food for energy (American Dietetic Association, 2008). The nervous system is also involved and supports the digestive system. Two nerves help control the action of the digestive system. The Extrinsic (outside) nerves come to the digestive organs from the brain/spinal cord. Acetylcholine, which causes the muscle layers in the digestive organs to squeeze with more force increasing digestive juices and the push of food through the digestive tract travels through these nerves. Adrenaline has the opposite effect, it relaxes the stomach and intestine, and decreases blood flow to the organs, slowing or stopping digestion (American Dietetic Association, 2008). The second is the Intrinsic (inside) nerve; it makes up a dense network embedded in the walls of the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and colon. This nerve is triggered when the walls of the hollow organs are stretched by food. It releases many different substances, which will speed up or delay the movement of food and production of juices by the digestive system. (American Dietetic Association, 2008). A perfectly functioning digestive system relies on many different systems to reach peak performance. Without the support and contribution of these systems the digestive system would be compromised affecting an individuals health. ORGANS IN THE DIGESTIVE SYTEM There are many organs in the digestive system that contribute to food digestion and the overall health of an individual. They include the oral cavity, salivary glands (Parotid, Submandibular, and Sublinqual), pharynx, epiglottis, liver, gallbladder, stomach, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine and rectum (Audersirk, et al., 2008). The Oral Cavity (mouth) is where food begins its digestive journey. As food is taken into the mouth it is chewed into small bits and mixed with saliva from the salivary glands: Paratoid, Submandibular, and Sublingual. Saliva aids digestion through the contribution of Amylase which is a digestive enzyme used to form sugar from starch, helping to prevent bacterial infections, and making it easier to swallow. As food passes from the mouth to the Pharynx, swallowing occurs which activates the Epiglottis (muscle flap) to cover the opening to a persons airway. The Epiglottis is a director keeping food out of areas it doesnt belong and sending it into the esophagus (food highway). The Esophagus is a passageway that travels from the pharynx to the stomach. Food moves through the esophagus towards the stomach with the aid of peristalses (muscle contractions). As food moves through the esophagus mucus is released to coat the passageway and protect if from being damaged as food travels to the s tomach (Audersirk, et al, 2008). As the food reaches the Stomach it passes through the Lower Esophageal Sphincter which acts as a lid to prevent stomach contents from entering the esophagus. The stomach is a muscular plant that functions to regulate the flow of food into the small intestine create smaller pieces of food through muscular contractions, and breakdown food through chemical processes. Gastric glands located in the stomach lining add Pepsinogen (inactive digestive enzyme), hydrochloric acid, and mucus into the stomach cavity to aid in the digestive process. The Pepsinogen becomes Pepsin (the active enzyme) when it is introduced to the hydrochloric acid. This separation of substances prevents the stomach from eating itself. The pepsin then starts protein digestion while the food is within the stomach. The mixing and churning of the stomach created by peristalsis, and the digestive enzymes and substances released into the stomach produces Chyme (partially digested food and digestive secretions ( Audersirk, et al., pg. 698 2008]). Chyme is the substance released at a regulated rate through the pyloric sphincter into the small intestine. This portion of digestion can occur within 2 to 6 hours (Audersirk, et al., 2008). The Small Intestine is where the majority of digestion and absorption occurs. As chyme passes into the small intestine several enzymes and digestive secretions are released. The Liver contributes bile which is comprised of bile salts, water, other salts, and cholesterol. (Audersirk, et al., pg. 698, 2008) The salts contained within bile aid with the digestion and diffusion of fats within the chyme. The Pancreas disburses pancreatic juice (water, sodium bicarbonate, and digestive enzymes (Audersirk, et al., pg. 699, 2008]) into the small intestine which lowers the acidic levels of the chyme and aids in digestion. Digestive enzymes within pancreatic juice include pancreatic Amylase (effective carbohydrate enzyme), lipases (breaks down fats, lipids), and proteases (finishes protein breakdown). Once the useful substances contained in chyme (carbohydrates, protein, nutrients, lipids) are broken down, absorption occurs through the walls of the small intestine into the bloodstream, except f or glycerol and fatty acids. These must travel a different absorption route. Chylomicrons (groups of fat particles and protein) travel through the lacteal into the lymphatic system and end up in a vein close to the heart. The leftover waste is then passed into the large intestine (Audersirk, et al., 2008). The Large Intestine consists of the colon (ascending, transverse, and descending), and the rectum. The main function of the large intestine is to produce vitamins necessary for the body such as vitamin B12 and vitamin K. These vitamins are synthesized (produced chemically or biologically [MSN.Encarta Dictionary, 2008]) by bacteria within the large intestine and are then absorbed. This absorption triggers muscles (peristalsis) that contract the remaining waste into feces to be expelled from the body through the rectum (Audersirk, et al., 2008). THE ESOPHAGUS All the organs in the digestive system are formed specifically for the purpose of their function. Take the esophagus for example. The esophagus main purpose is get food from the mouth to the stomach, which makes its composition critical. Beginning at the base of the pharynx, the esophagus opens through the Upper Esophageal Sphincter (UES) and ends at the stomach with the Lower Esophageal Sphincter (LES). The UES directs food into the Esophagus while the LES keeps food that has already left the esophagus and stomach acid from getting into it. Approximately 10 in length it is comprised of various muscular tissues. The upper third of the esophagus is striated muscle which is triggered by voluntary impulses. Once past the upper third of the esophagus the muscles turn smooth becoming the smoothest in the bottom portion of the esophagus. Smooth muscle is operated involuntarily by the nervous system. These muscles are in two layers. The outer layer of muscle fibers of the esophagus run vertically, while the inner layer of muscle fibers surrounds the esophagus in rings. These muscles are what move the food down the esophagus to the stomach. Prior to food entering, the esophagus remains collapsed, but as food enters it a signal is sent to the nervous system that triggers peristaltic contractions. These muscular contractions are the power behind the movement of food (Rosenberger M.D., n.d; Pope, C.E., 2008). The muscular layers of the esophagus are joined to an internal mucous layer via the Areolar or sub-mucous layer. This mucous membrane covers the interior of the esophagus and is lined with stratified squamous epithelium consisting of a basal layer of two to three layers of cells Located within the sub-mucous layer are the mucous type esophageal glands. The mucous membrane protects the esophagus from damage and aids the movement of food toward the stomach (Coutsoukis, n.d.). The esophagus receives blood from the inferior thyroid artery, tracheobronchial arteries, and the left gastric artery. Its venous pathways (route blood leaves the esophagus) are the superior vena cava, azygous system, and gastric veins. The structure of the esophagus and the support of the circulatory and nervous system all combine to make the esophagus a highly complex organ capable of completing its function as a highly developed transportation system (Rosenberger M.D., n.d; Pope, C.E., 2008). DIGESTIVE SYSTEM DISEASES Several diseases and conditions can develop in the digestive system that can seriously affect an individuals overall health and quality of life. A person receives the nutrients that are necessary to sustain a healthy body through the digestive system, which makes its proper function critical to sustain life. Some of the diseases associated with this system develop due to a nutrient or vitamin deficiency in an individuals diet, consumption of excessive alcoholic beverages, or conditions that arise from a lack of development prior to birth. Two of these types of diseases are preventable through proper diet and good lifestyle choices, while the third is beyond the control of an individual to influence. In an effort to illustrate the differences, a disease from each type was chosen and discussed in the following paragraphs. Hirschsprungs is a disease caused by a birth defect, while Cirrhosis is caused from the consumption of excessive alcoholic beverages or exposure to Hepatitis A, B, or C (Audersirk, et al., 2008). Hirschsprungs disease (HD) is a condition that humans are born with due to lack of development in the large intestine or colon. This disease usually manifests in children and causes constipation or the complete inability to have a bowel movement. This occurs because the large intestine lacks the necessary equipment to do the job. Special nerve cells in the intestine, called ganglion cells make the muscles push. (Hirschsprungs disease, n.d.). These muscular contractions push the feces into the rectum so that it can exit the body. A child born with Hirschsprungs disease doesnt have these cells in parts of their intestine. As the stool enters one of these sections it stops creating a blockage. The stool then backs up into the small intestine and can cause a serious infection known as Enterocolitis. If left untreated, it can cause the colon to rupture creating the possibility of death. HD is common in children with Downs syndrome. Currently, surgery is the only available treatment and requires removing the section of diseased intestine. A colostomy bag is attached to the exterior of the body to receive bowel movements until the intestine heals. After it heals a second surgery is needed to reconnect the intestine with the anus. Children that receive the surgery can go on to lead normal lifestyles. The bodies inability to remove waste created from digestion created a life threatening situation (Hirschsprungs disease, n.d.). Cirrhosis of the liver is an example of a disease in the digestive system that is preventable. Cirrhosis is from damaged or scarred liver tissue. The scar tissue prevents the liver from functioning to its full capacity of making protein, fighting infections, cleaning the blood, assistance in digesting food and storing energy. Normal blood flow through the liver is blocked by the scar tissue. Excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages is the main cause for Cirrhosis. However, it can occur in humans if hepatitis A, B or C is contracted. Some causes of the disease may not be identifiable even after blood tests and an examination by a physician. It can be life threatening, but is usually treatable if detected early. People with Cirrhosis have to be extremely careful about medications and alcohol intake since the liver acts as a catalyst in breaking down chemicals and nutrients which may cause the liver to stop functioning completely. Regular exercise and a nutritious diet can prevent contracting the disease. Vaccinations are also available for Hepatitis A and B, but not for C (Audersirk, et al., 2008). A digestive system must be whole in order to function appropriately. A persons best bet for digestive health is to eat a healthy well rounded diet full of fiber, fruit, and the vitamins and nutrients necessary to promote a healthy body. Taking preventative sensible measures wont guarantee a persons health but it will greatly increase the odds in their favor.

Quantum Entanglement and Bell’s Theorem Essay

In the early 20th century, physicists were in need of a new theory to describe the world of the atom and its components. Newtonian mechanics and Einstein’s theory of relativity worked very well at describing the motion of the planets and stars, but when these theories were applied to the atom, they completely broke down. Max Planck discovered that atoms exchange energy in individual packets of specific energy values. Planck called these energy packets â€Å"quanta†, Latin for â€Å"unit of quantity†, hence the name quantum theory. Two pioneers of quantum theory, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrodinger, devised mathematical formulas to describe the atom. Two fundamental principles of quantum mechanics emerged from their equations: the uncertainty principle and the principle of superposition. Superposition states that an atom exists in all possible states until it is measured. The uncertainty principle says that you cannot know a quantum particles location and momentum (momentum is a particles velocity,roughly) at the same time. These principles are important because they reduce predictions of physical object’s position from an absolutes to only a range of probabilities. This is very different from the certainty of classical physics. The strangest phenomenon predicted, however, is quantum entanglement. It predicted that when a particle is split in two, it behaves as if it were still joined, no matter how far they are separated. Change one of the entangled particles and the other reacts instantly. These strange properties described by quantum mechanics were unacceptable to Einstein and many other physicists. Einstein felt that quantum theory itself must be a flawed theory to produce such strange predictions. The bizarre behavior and properties of the atom and sub-atomic particles must be attributable to some other mechanisms, he reasoned. Niels Bohr, another pioneer of quantum theory, deflected Einstein’s criticisms and claimed that quantum theory was a sound theory. The problem, Bohr said, was that we need an entirely new set of words and terminology for the theory because the realm of the atom was so different from our everyday experiences. In 1935 Einstein, along with Boris Poldolsky and Nathan Rosen, submitted a famous paper outlining their criticisms of quantum mechanics titled â€Å"Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete? †. The EPR paper, as it is known, included an idea for an experiment that would test and prove who was right, classical physics or quantum mechanics. The test, however, was not thought possible. For 30 years the debate between the classical and quantum views continued. Physicist John Bell brilliantly devised a feasible experiment involving entanglement using individual photons, light filters, and photon detectors. He calculated two sets of equations that predict the results: one using classical mechanics, the other using quantum theory. The predictions of classical and quantum theories give very different results. The theory that matches the experimental data must be the correct theory. It would not be until 1980 that the technology existed to perform Bell’s experiment. I am going to greatly simplify how the experiment works for clarity. When a photon is split, each photon retains complementary properties of one another. That is, if a photon starts as â€Å"AB†, the individual halves of the photon become â€Å"A† and â€Å"B â€Å"(â€Å"B† is complementary to â€Å"A† and vice versa). If we measure one of the split photons as being â€Å"A†, the other must be â€Å"B†. In the experiment, the photon is split and the individual photons race through a path in opposite directions. They each go through a filter that polarizes the photons. Simply put, polarization orients the photon in a certain direction. Imagine the photon as a sphere with a pole through it marking as â€Å"north† or â€Å"south†. Polarization flips the direction of the pole. So, polarized light becomes either â€Å"up† (north) or â€Å"down† (south). In this case, the complement of â€Å"up† is â€Å"down† and vice versa. Our photons can be labeled â€Å"A up† or â€Å"B down†; â€Å"A down† or â€Å"B up† depending on how the filter polarizes it which is completely random. If we were to send a pair of photons on separate and opposite directions without a filter, no polarization happens and the detectors would register â€Å"A† on one and â€Å"B† on the other invariably. Add the filters, and the detectors register â€Å"A up†,†B down†,†B up†, or â€Å"A down†. Since the filters completely randomize each photon’s polarization, one detector could indicate an â€Å"A up† and the other could detect an â€Å"B up† for the same set of split photons, right? The Bell tests show that when when one detector registers â€Å"A up†, the other detector shows a â€Å"B down†. It’s not surprising the â€Å"A’s† are opposite to the â€Å"B’s†, it’s that their polarizations are always complementary, or opposite. How does the other photon â€Å"know† what the other polarization will be and act accordingly? Are they still connected somehow? If not, does one photon somehow send information about its state to the other photon so it can act accordingly? If the photons do somehow communicate, the information they send must travel much faster than the speed of light and violate a fundamental physical law. Whatever the case, it shows our understanding of the universe is incomplete. Bell was a proponent of Einstein’s view of reality and didn’t expect quantum theory to be proven right. After witnessing a confirmation of his theory he said â€Å"I have seen the impossible done†. The phenomenon of entanglement has been demonstrated in experiment after experiment and progressively separating the photons at greater distances. Recently in Vienna, an even more stringent test was completed by Professor Anton Zellinger. The tests have sent split photons from one island to another many kilometers away and had the same eerie result. Our whole description of fundamental reality has to be revised. After the latest confirmation of quantum theory in Vienna, Dr. Zellinger and his colleagues posted a help wanted. They are seeking a philosopher to help understand the profound implications.

Is the World Flat?

Globalization is a big issue in our modern day. What is globalization? Has globalization passed its peak? Is the world flat or spiky? There are several very vocal proponents of an argument that the world has become flat in recent years. However, there are some writers have the opposite opinion. This paper introduces both sides of the debate and presents the arguments for and against the idea that the world has become flat in recent years. The term â€Å"globalization† today refers to the shift in the world economy. It is moving towards a more integrated and interdependent world economy (H. C. W, p. 8). Globalization makes people, countries and markets closer. The world is flat; this view is supported by some people, but the most prominent being Thomas L. Friedman. â€Å"It’s a Flat World, After All† is a journal by Friedman which was published in 2005. In this article, Friedman argues the world is â€Å"flat† as a result of globalization; it is also a product of a convergence of personal computer and fiber-optic micro cable and software. Globalization has leveled the playing fields between different countries. This is what he called Globalization 3. 0 (started around 2000) which quite different from the earlier 2. 0 and 1. 0 versions (Thomas L. Friedman, 2005). To support the â€Å"flat world†, Friedman identities ten flattening factors that he sees as leveling the global playing field. Thomas Friedman taught us that the world is flat, but is the world really flat? Richard Florida has scorned his arguments. Florida, says that the world is actually spiky. In â€Å"The World is Spiky†, published in The Atlantic Monthly in 2005, Florida argues that economic power, innovation, and creative talent is actually only clustered in a few cities and regions, so these areas are growing higher while other areas languish (Richard Florida, 2005) Florida uses a series of maps to prove his argument. He shows where the world’s population centres are and where many of the world’s patents are issued and where the most scientists are located. Florida mentions the share of the world’s population living in urban areas is over 50% world wide now compared to just 3% in 1800. Some big cities, such as New York, Los Angeles, Toronto, Vancouver, Tokyo, Shanghai, around the globe are towers of patent filings, population, and science, but some cities are not. So the ability to innovate and create is only centred among few places in the world (Richard Florida, 2005). Pankaj Ghemawat, is another writer scorns the argument for the world has become flat. He argued more than ninety percent of the world's phone calls, Web traffic, and investments are still domestic (Ghemawat, 2007). Ghemawat also suggests that Friedman’s assertions are exaggerated visions. He points out that Friedman has grossly exaggerated the significance of the trends he describes: â€Å"Despite talk of a new, wired world where information, ideas, money, and people can move around the planet faster than ever before, just a fraction of what we consider globalization actually exists (Ghemawat, 2007) The issue of if the world has become flat in recent years has divided opinion in two different sides. Proponents of an argument that the world has become flat, like Friedman, believes people are getting closer and all competitors have an equal opportunity. The opposite side, such as Florida and Ghemawat, says otherwise. They think there are peaks and valleys. The peaks are getting stronger and more connected to each other. Word Count: 613 words Bibliography Article Florida, R. 2005, ‘The world is spiky,' Atlantic Monthly (October), pp. 8-51. Friedman, T. L. 2005, ‘It’s a flat world, after all', The New York Times Magazine, April 3, pp. 33-37. Ghemawat, P. 2007, ‘Why the world isn't flat,' Foreign Policy (March-April), pp. 54-60. Hill, C and Cronk, T and Wickramasekera, R. ‘Global Business Today’, pp. 8 Internet ‘The World is Not Flat – It's Spiky’, February 26, 2006, from: http://remoteaccess. typepad. com/remote_access/2006/0 2/the_world_is_no. html ‘Is the World Flat †¦ or Spiky? ’ From: http://insidework. net/resources/articles/is-world-flat-or-spiky

Sports Stars Has Changed The Views Of Athletics - 1327 Words

â€Å"I think sportsmanship is knowing that it is a game. That we are only as a good as our opponents, and whether you win or lose, to always give 100 percent† (Sue Wicks). The idea of a game has been lost with the huge media and economic conglomerates that modern sports have created. As a nation America has lost sight of what is truly important with winning and losing. What is important is what is taken back from the game and not who wins the big game. Promoting false idols and spending billions on sports stars has changed the views of athletics their morals. In our world we once idolized intelligence and the ability to be ethically right. Now we teach that whoever preforms in sports and wins the game succeeds. Athletes went from making almost nothing and playing for the love of the game to striving for 100 million dollar contracts and forgetting about education. Many people want to excel in sports and be stars but don’t care about the risks or education they receive o r interact with on the way. By promoting the massive sports world Americans have lost track of the idea of a game, and the education they are receiving while promoting sports over schooling. American schools spend on average more than any other country in the world on every student that attends, but rank in the lower half of countries when it comes to test scores because of the emphasis of schools sports teams. In America we have been slowly promoting the advancement of our sports programs over our educationalShow MoreRelatedThe Rule : The Rules For College Athletes1054 Words   |  5 PagesThe NCAA for countless years has regulated and overseen the actions and conduct of the players they hold. The rules the NCAA has in place are there to keep the playing field fair for all schools across the country. However, some of these rules put unfair restrictions on the players. 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